FACILITATING THE TEACHING OF FOUR LANGUAGE SKILLS WITH COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING (CALL)

Rosmania Rima

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INTRODUCTION

1.1       Background

In the last few years, the number of teachers using Computer-assisted Language Learning (CALL) has increased markedly and numerous articles have been written about the role of technology in education in the 21st century. Although the potential of the Internet for educational use has not been fully explored yet and the average school still makes limited use of computers, it is obvious that we have entered a new information age in which the links between technology and EFL have already been established.

In the early 90’s education started being affected by the introduction of word processors in schools, colleges and universities. This mainly had to do with written assignments. The development of the Internet brought about a revolution in the teachers’ perspective, as the teaching tools offered through the Internet were gradually becoming more reliable. Nowadays, the Internet is gaining immense popularity in foreign language teaching and more and more educators and learners are embracing it.

Motteram (1971:17) stated that there has always been a perceived relationship between educational technology and learner autonomy. This is taking educational technology in its broadest sense and taking learner autonomy as a super ordinate term. This has become increasingly true for computers and self-access.

Successful learning is depending on the student’s desire to participate. However, there is always lack of participation that is often caused by the artificial nature of the classroom. When they were asked to communicate about various situations, the students should also be involved in the actual situation. Decision-making, asking for advice, agreeing and disagreeing, and compromising with fellow students are all tasks that cry out for “authentic” settings. It is in these settings that CALL can be used to great advantage.

By using the computer as a tool to create students projects, research information and provide context, teacher can employ the computer to help students to become more involved in the task, thereby facilitating the necessity of effective learning within a group setting. Due to the importance of CALL in English Foreign Language Class, the writer would like to discuss “Facilitating the Teaching of four Language skills with Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL)”.

1.2             Identification of the  Problem

Based on the background above, the writer identifies the problems as follow     :

a.     What is Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL)?

b.     Why do we use Computer Assisted Language Learning?

c.      How can Computer assisted Language Learning be implemented in learning language skills?

1.3             Limitation of the Problem

In regard to the identification of the problems, the writer limits the problem in the use of Computer Assisted Language Learning in English Foreign Language Class.

FRAME OF THEORIES

2.1             Frame of Theories

2.1.1       Computer

Hackbarth (1996:189) stated that computer is a machine which can receive, manipulate and store information. It is operated by sets of instructions. The core of computer is central processing unit which interprets instruction, operates on data and coordinate activities of the entire system. The use of computer in education involves color, music, animated graphic raises students motivation, moreover it provide high speed personalized responses to learners action yield a high rate of reinforcement.

2.1.2       Language Learning

According to Krashen (1998 ) language learning is ‘knowing about’ language, or ‘formal knowledge’ of language. It refers to explicit knowledge of rules, being aware of them and being able to talk about them.

It shows the consciousness of the participant in their efforts to gain the language being learned. It usually involves many elements, such as the teacher, classroom and environment. However, in this case, the language that will be further discussed is English Language.

2.1.3       Computer Assisted Language Learning

Computer-assisted language learning (CALL) is an approach to language teaching and learning in which computer technology is used as an aid to the presentation, reinforcement and assessment of material to be learned, usually including a substantial interactive element.

2.2             Frame of  Thinking

Until quite recently, computer-assisted language learning (CALL) is a topic of relevance mostly to those with a special interest in that area. Recently, though, computers have become so widespread in schools and homes and their uses have expanded so dramatically that the majority of language teachers must now begin to think about the implications of computers for language learning.

This paper provides brief overview of how computers have been used and are being used for language teaching. It focuses not on a technical description of hardware and software, but rather on the use of computers in the classroom especially in teaching language skills.

DISCUSSION

3.1             Computer Assisted Language Learning

Computer-assisted language learning (CALL) is an approach to language teaching and learning in which computer technology is used as an aid to the presentation, reinforcement and assessment of material to be learned, usually including a substantial interactive element.

We can divide the development of CALL into three distinct phases (Warschauer, 1996): behaviourist, communicative and integrative.

Behaviourist CALL was implemented in the 1960’s and 70’s, when the Audio-lingual method was mostly used, and provided students with drills and practice. This model used the computer as a tutor, presenting drills and non-judgmental feedback.

Based on the communicative approach, communicative CALL focuses more on using forms rather than on the forms themselves. The communicative CALL programmes provide skill practice in a non-drill format, through language games, reading and text reconstruction. This approach still uses the computer as a tutor, although it gives students choices, control and interaction. Another CALL model used for communicative activities involves the computer as stimulus, as in programmes that stimulate writing or discussions, and which may not be specifically designed for language learners. Finally, communicative CALL also

uses the computer as a tool, in programmes that do not provide language material, but enable the learner to understand and use the language, such as word processors, desk–top publishing, spelling and grammar checks programmes, as used for instance in process writing.

The current approach is integrative CALL, which is based on multimedia computers and the Internet. These technological developments have brought text, graphics, sound, animation and video to be accessed on a single inexpensive computer. These resources are all linked and called ‘hypermedia’, enabling learners to navigate through CD-ROMS and the Internet at their own pace and path, using a variety of media.

3.2             Why do we use Computer Assisted Language Learning?

Lee (2000) in his research and practice suggest that, appropriately implemented, network-based technology can contribute significantly to:

1. Experiential Learning

The World Wide Web makes it possible for students to tackle a huge amount of human experience. In such a way, they can learn by doing things themselves. They become the creators not just the receivers of knowledge. As the way information is presented is not linear, users develop thinking skills and choose what to explore.

       b.  Motivation

Computers are most popular among students either because they are associated with fun and games or because they are considered to be fashionable. Student motivation is therefore increased, especially whenever a variety of activities are offered, which make them feel more independent.

       c. Enhanced Student Achievement

Network-based instruction can help pupils strengthen their linguistic skills by positively affecting their learning attitude and by helping them build self-instruction strategies and promote their self-confidence.

      d.   Authentic Materials for Study

All students can use various resources of authentic reading materials either at school or from their home. Those materials can be accessed 24 hours a day at a relatively low cost.

     e.   Greater Interaction

Random access to Web pages breaks the linear flow of instruction. By sending E-mail and joining newsgroups, EFL students can communicate with people they have never met. They can also interact with their own classmates. Furthermore, some Internet activities give students positive and negative feedback by automatically correcting their on-line exercises.

      f.   Individualization

Shy or inhibited students can be greatly benefited by individualized, student-centered collaborative learning. High fliers can also realize their full potential without preventing their peers from working at their own pace.

      g.   Independence from a Single Source of Information

Although students can still use their books, they are given the chance to escape from canned knowledge and discover thousands of information sources. As a result, their education fulfils the need for interdisciplinary learning in a multicultural world.

       h.  Global Understanding

A foreign language is studied in a cultural context. In a world where the use of the Internet becomes more and more widespread, an English Language teacher’s duty is to facilitate students’ access to the web and make them feel citizens of a global classroom, practicing communication on a global level.

3.3      Advantages and Disadvantages

            CALL offers many advantages for individual instruction; it has infinite patience and often an attractive ‘personality’. It means that the students learn actively, responds the questions, complete interactive tasks, and enter a personal dialogue with their electronic tutor.

The advantage is that CALL, like other new technologies, brings about changes in the teaching methodologies of English. There are cases, though, in which computers are just used to give old materials a new aspect. This is the case of teachers who put students in front of the computer just to make fill-in-the-gap exercises. In the following table we may see the advantages and disadvantages of CALL as stated by  Scrimshaw (1993 ) :

3.4      CALL in Learning Language Skill

Skills-oriented language teaching remains a common approach for classes as well as for self-learning, and computer-assisted language learning is no exception. In this discussion we look at how both tool and tutor software can be used to support specific skills. In particular, we will discuss some websites that focus on these skill areas. Like everything else that’s free on the web, the sites need to be looked at carefully for their pedagogical value. Once you understand what they do, try to judge their fit to your potential students and your own teaching approach. You can also use them to get ideas for your own future CALL materials development.

a.     Listening

Listening is potentially one of the most promising areas for CALL development. This is because multimedia computing has everything standard audio and video have with the addition of a variety of meaning technologies such as text support, hyperlinked glossaries, and even translations.  Listening activities typically involve presentations followed by comprehension questions–some also include full or partial dictations.  One type of presentation specific to CALL is the punctuated presentation, in which the flow is interrupted at intervals to ask questions along the way. This in theory encourages more focused attention and allows a learner to get a check on understanding early in the activity. This technique was popularized in products by DynEd beginning around 1990. Surprisingly few multimedia programs have followed their example.

Examples of course website for two of recent listening classes are at www.stanford.edu/~efs/693a/ and www.stanford.edu/~efs/efs693b/ The notes have both links and examples of listening assignments.  An overview of listening on the web from a 2003 TESOL colloquium is available at www.stanford.edu/~efs/tesol03listening. Note that the list there includes a number of sites where you can find authentic audio or video materials supported by text. A good one for English for academic purposes is www.uncommonknowledge.org, featuring interviews and panel discussions with public policy experts.

There are a number of useful dedicated ESL listening sites: three of my favorites are www.esl-lab.com, www.elllo.org, and www.lingual.net.

b.     speaking

In terms of direct practice of speaking, recent developments on the web have allowed for voice chat sites which make it possible for learners and teachers to interact through the Internet in distance education courses.  Asynchronous speaking practice is possible through www.wimba.com, using Internet voice mail, or simply attaching sound files to email. There has also been interest recently in having students produce and publish pod casts. Many believe that putting students in front of a computer in groups of two or more will get them talking about the computer task and improve speaking fluency, although research has not always borne this out: like many other CALL activities, it depends on the students’ readiness and motivation. For tutorial CALL, practicing speaking has always been tricky.  TRACITalk and TellMeMore are examples of programs which allow some limited conversation simulation that gives something of the experience through the use of speech recognition software. Most programs simply rely on voice recording, with the learner simply recording a line from a dialogue and then comparing it with the native sample.

The most widely used indirect method for practicing speaking is simply to listen to conversational dialogues on disk or the web. See, for example,  www.rong-chang.com/book/.  

c.     Reading

Most reading instruction on disk and the web has involved the use of meaning technologies, such as hypertext glossaries, translations, and notes (on grammar, usage, culture).

Here are some other ways CALL can be used to support reading

• Just using the web: teachers give students tasks that require finding, comprehending and sometimes consolidating information on the web.
• Educational sites with ESL or adult literacy support: CNN’s Adult Education Reading Site
• Text reconstruction activities, such as Storyboard, cloze exercises, and jigsaw readings
• Timed or paced readings to develop speed
• Multimedia reading, such as voice enhanced texts and dynamically illustrated material

d.     Writing

Writing was revolutionized for everyone with word processing, and the addition of spell checkers has been quite helpful. Grammar and style checkers are much less useful to date, and using a thesaurus can be counterproductive if students aren’t trained in their limitations. Writing has also been a common skill taught as a course through distance education using the Internet. 

Some other ways computers enhance writing instruction include the following:

• Use of email for fluency development
• Online writing resources and tutorials (e.g., using programmed prompts)
• Blank screen (where the monitor is turned off and students type in their ideas without being distracted) and other production techniques
• Collaborative writing tasks. These are made easier today with tools such as Writely, an online word processor now available for free from Google: http://docs.google.com/
• Writing support practice (e.g., CALL activities with fill-ins for structured writing)
• Publication opportunities (both paper and web) as motivators

With respect to the last point, writing publication opportunities are readily available through Wikis and Blogs. Wikis are webpages that can be easily modified by multiple users (see, for example, Wikipedia: www.wikpedia.org) and are particularly good for collaborative projects, while blogs (weblogs) are online journals that individual students or groups can publish and allow others to leave comments on: see www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/resources/blogging.shtml.

e.     Grammar

Grammar practice was perhaps the earliest use of CALL. Today grammar work is largely focused on the following:

• Workbook-style exercises (on disk and online): online examples can be seen at www.eslgold.com
• Grammar test prep materials (especially TOEFL and TOEIC)
• Online courses and references (e.g., Anthony Hughes’  Online English Grammar)
• Hypertext-linked grammar notes accompanying readings

f.        Pronunciation

Pronunciation work is generally of three types:

• Listen, repeat/record, and compare. This option shows up in many multimedia programs and is analogous to the tape-based language lab technique in the audio-lingual method. However, the instantaneous response of digitized speech (no rewinding needed) makes the computer a more effective instrument. See http://international.ouc.bc.ca/pronunciation/dialog01.htm 
• Visualization: wave form, pitch contour, spectrogram. The first and last are of questionable value. Wave forms are easy for a computer to produce, but they only clearly show the bands of intensity across time. This is most helpful in teaching rhythm. Spectrograms are most useful if they have high detail, which they generally don’t on CALL software, and they require training in phonetics to interpret them. However, visualization of pitch contour has been found to be quite helpful for some students in recognizing and producing both the patterns and ranges of intonation. You can see examples of these in the demos of Rosetta Stone software for English and other languages at http://www.rosettastone.com.
• ASR (automatic speech recognition) scoring. Here, the computer uses speech recognition software to grade accuracy. This can be useful, but there are a lot of technical problems–microphone quality, sound card quality, and background noise are all variables that can negatively affect the score, leading even native speakers to score as non-natives. For an example of a standardized test that uses ASR, see Ordinate’s PhonePass: www.ordinate.com. ASR and other is also used in Rosetta Stone

There are a number of commercial CD-ROMs for teaching pronunciation. These are generally superior to the text and tape alternatives. An example is Pronunciation in American English. There are also some useful sites with pronunciation support: one example is http://international.ouc.bc.ca/pronunciation/.

g.     Vocabulary

Vocabulary activities have been around since the early days of CALL in the form of electronic flashcards (linking L2 word to L1 translation or L2 word to L2 definition). Other common CALL implementations for vocabulary include the following :

• Hypertext dictionaries/glossaries

      (www.babylon.com; www.voycabulary.com)    

• Talking dictionaries: Longman, Oxford, and Newbury House have learner’s dictionaries with CD-ROMs
• Concordance programs: these programs look for words in collections of texts, or corpora, and return examples of the word in the immediate context it occurs in: an online one is available at www.edict.com.hk/concordance/.
• Picture dictionaries: especially the largest one in the world http://images.google.com.
• Word lists and vocabulary tests for English: General service list; Academic word list, Level tests.

An outstanding portal site for vocabulary teaching and research tools is The Complete Lexical Tutor:  http://www.lextutor.ca/

CONCLUSION

            Based on the discussion mentioned before, the writer may conclude the following point:

1. Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) is an approach to language teaching and learning in which computer technology is used as an aid to the presentation, reinforcement and assessment of material to be learned, usually including a substantial interactive element
2. We use CALL in language learning because it contributes significantly to increase student’s motivation, enhance student’s achievement, authentic material for study, individualization and global understanding.
3. Skills-oriented language teaching remains a common approach for classes as well as for self-learning, and computer-assisted language learning is no exception. In this discussion, we have looked at how both tool and tutor software can be used to support specific skills.

§         Listening is potentially one of the most promising areas for CALL development. This is because multimedia computing has everything standard audio and video have with the addition of a variety of meaning technologies such as text support, hyperlinked glossaries, and even translations.  Listening activities typically involve presentations followed by comprehension questions–some also include full or partial dictations.

§         In terms of direct practice of speaking, recent developments on the web have allowed for voice chat sites which make it possible for learners and teachers to interact through the Internet in distance education courses. 

§         Most reading instruction on disk and the web has involved the use of meaning technologies, such as hypertext glossaries, translations, and notes (on grammar, usage, culture).

§         Writing was revolutionized for everyone with word processing, and the addition of spell checkers has been quite helpful. Grammar and style checkers are much less useful to date, and using a thesaurus can be counterproductive if students are not trained in their limitations.

As we approach the 21st century, we realize that technology as such is not the answer to all our problems. What really matters is how we use technology. Computers can/will never substitute teachers but they offer new opportunities for better language practice.

REFERENCES

Hackbarth, Steven. 1996. Educational Technology Handbook a Comprehensive Guide Process and Products for Learning. New Jersey: Educational technology Publications.

Heinich. 1982. Instructional Media and the New Technologies of Instruction.  Canada: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Lee, Kuang-wu. 2000. English Teachers’ Barriers to the Use of Computer-assisted Language Learning. In the Internet TESL journal 2000. http://iteslj.org/Articles/Lee-CALLbarriers.html. Date/Time : May 24, 2007/ 17:10:00.

Motteram, G. 1997. Learner Autonomy and the Web. In V Darleguy et al. (eds) Educational Technology in Language Learning : Theoretical Consideration and Practical applications. Lyons : INSA

Scrimshaw, P. 1993. Language, classrooms, and computers. New York: British Library

Warschauer, M. (1996). Computer-assisted language learning: an introduction. In S. Fotos (Ed.), Tokyo: Logos International

`           Computers and the Internet are so widespread today that one feels outdated if not using them. The majority of language teachers must now begin to think about the implications of computers and internet for language teaching and learning. Therefore, according to Lee (2000) many of which cannot perform this kind of technology since there are some barriers in the use of it namely financial barrier, availability of computer hardware and software, and technical knowledge.

Financial barriers are the most frequently problem faced by the education practitioners. Many schools, especially those in sub-urban area will consider this technology is costly, such as long waiting time to access information and costs related to the acquisition of computers, programmes, training, telephone lines and other expenses. Herschbach (1994) argues firmly that new technologies are add-on expenses and will not, in many cases, lower the cost of providing educational services. He stated that that the new technologies probably will not replace the teachers, but will supplement their efforts, as has been the pattern with other technologies. The technologies will not decrease educational costs or increase teacher productivity as currently used.

The most significant aspects of computer are hardware and software. Availability of high quality software, however, is being one of the most wearing tasks for schools. There are few educators skilled in designing it because software development is costly and time-consuming (McClelland, 1996). Well-designed software usually cost very high that many school cannot afford it; moreover, the available local software also have to be carefully selected. Accordingly, teacher should be trained to design and develop their own material to cut the cost of supplying software related to the students’ needs.

A lack of technical knowledge is another barrier to the use of Computer-assisted Language Learning technology. In the communication between McClelland and C. Dede (1995), Dede indicated the more powerful technologies, such as artificial intelligence in computers, might promote learning of higher-order cognitive skills that are difficult to access with today’s evaluation procedures and, therefore, the resulting pedagogical gains may be under-valued. Not only is there a shortage of knowledge about developing software to promote learning, but many instructors do not understand how to use the new technologies. Furthermore, only few teachers know about integrating computer as means of learning into an overall teaching plan. In conclusion, lack of training and familiarity with computers and the Internet can lead to ineffective teaching and learning process, instead of offering a motivating learning experience. Therefore, both teacher and students should be facilitated to learn more about how to deal with technology devices before they use it in instruction.

References

Herschbach, D. (1994). Addressing vocational training and retaining through educational technology: Policy alternatives. (Information Series No. 276). Columbus, OH: The National Center for Research in Vocational Education.

  Lee, Kuang-wu. 2000. English Teachers’ Barriers to the Use of Computer-assisted Language Learning. The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. VI, No. 12, December. http://iteslj.org/Articles/html. Date/Time : May 24, 2007/ 17:10:00.

CALL Program 1

Title :   Issue in English

Author :   Henry Kaufmann & Virginia Westwood

Produced by :   Protea Textware, Melbourne

Year :   1996

            At the first time we run this program, at the first page we are presented with some issues like animal rights, discrimination, growing old, public transport, smoking, the environment, gambling and euthanasia. These issues will become the topics that can be chosen by the students according to their interest on certain topics.

            Once we choose a topic, we may see some language components to be learned, such as getting started (cloze, spelling, dictation), listening, vocabulary, grammar, speaking, and writing. This program also provides four different levels of difficulty to give chance for students with different language skill level.

            In each language components, we may have some topics and activities as listed in the following table:

            This CD program is good in helping the students learn English since it covers almost all the language sill and components. Moreover, it is easy to operate, there is drag and drop system so that even young learner can operate this program without any difficulties. Both audio and visual are presented in attractive way, yet its grey background is less colorful. Another weakness is that this program provides limited assessment and feed back that enables students know their improvement.

CALL Program 2:  Talk Now (Learn English)

Talk now from Eurotalk interactive is likely designed to assist students in learning basic speaking skill components such as vocabulary, spelling and pronunciation. Beginner learner will be the main target of this program since it provides basic vocabularies at some topics. Before using this program student may record their name to see their score (students supposed to reach 1800 at most), and when they reach certain points, they may print their own certificate. It is of course very motivating students in learning more and more.

            The teaching of vocabularies and speaking trough this program are covered in some topics or categories such as shopping, countries, first words, food, colors, phrases, body, numbers and time. The activities include word practice, speaking practice, easy games and hard games. This program also enables us to print pictures dictionary at the topics discussed.

            During each activity, students are provided with pictures, animation and audio that are very attractive. At the games section (matching pictures with words, matching words and spelling, etc.), it is so encouraging us by saying “Good”, “Yes”, and “Well done” when we answer correctly, and say ”No” to help us find the right answer.

CALL Program 3: Talk More (Learn British English / Speak English)

This CALL program emphasize on the speaking skill in daily life such as how to express ideas or to respond. It drills the learner to hear and practice to say words, phrases and sentences in British English. Learners are supposed to get score of 1800 points and they may put their name in the students’ record to know their improvement.

            This program built around topics including shopping, alphabet, greeting, at the restaurant, getting around, at the hotel, on the phone, emergencies, leisure and business. It seems to be appropriate for elementary to intermediate students.

            Its colorful display and vivid picture will make the lesson enjoyable that students will fully willing do the activities. The operation manual also easy to follow and the important thing is that it provide quiz for assessment.

Comparing the three programs

CD Program	Focus	Level	Interactive ness	Flexibility	Attractiveness	Strengths	Weaknesses
Issue in English	Grammar Speaking Writing Listening Vocab	Beginner intermediate	Less interactive, Limited feedback	Flexible with icons to ease the operation/navigation	Less colorful, less animation,	Covers almost all the language skill and provide different level activities	Less attractive, less interactive, limited feedback and assessment
Talk now (learn English)	Speaking Vocab Spelling Pronunctn	Beginner	Interactive, sufficient feedback, students points records	Flexible with icons to ease the operation/navigation	Attractive, colorful display, pictures, animation, audio	contextual learning by providing topics	The activities restricted to one level
Talk more	Speaking Vocab	Beginner	Interactive, sufficient feedback, students points records	Flexible with icons to ease the operation/navigation	Attractive, colorful display, pictures, animation, audio	contextual learning by providing topics	The activities restricted to one level

Developing Student’s Reading Skill Through Individualized Instruction

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Rosmania Rima

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INTRODUCTION

We must realize that reading has an important social role in our life, because reading is one of means in our society to gain information as well as to improve our knowledge and perception. Henderson (1970, p.52) analogize that people who are not able to read in their life seem to be closed door without a handle. They will never get any written information nor will they share their information to the world; they are trapped in their own life. Nowadays, illiteracy is still a problem in many areas of the world, Indonesia especially, in which the number of illiterate children and adult is much significant. However, compulsory education laws have assured that most citizens of this nation can read.

Facility in reading is an essential factor in educational progress, and instruction in this basic skill is a primary purpose of elementary and secondary education. The teaching of reading has becoming more important for at least four reasons. First, being able to read English text can be useful for study purposes. Second, it is exposing language itself for students. It is always good thing for language learner to be exposed to the language, because it is a part of language acquisition where they can acquire language more easily. Third, it also provides good models for English writing. Before teaching writing, it will be helpful to give students a model to read in order they can be encouraged to write. Finally, it will give opportunities to study language such as vocabulary, grammar, punctuation, and the way that we construct sentences, paragraph and text (Harmer, 1998, p.68).

For decades, a debate has simmered in the educational community over the best way to teach how to read. There has been considerable difference of opinion about the best method of teaching reading. Humanistic approach, which include the four method (Community Language Learning, The Silent Way, Suggestopedia and Total Physical Response) developed in the 1970s and 1980s had a significant impact upon language teaching even if they rarely used (Harmer, 2001, p.88-90). As a number of methods have been proposed in order to get easy way to teach reading, yet there is still no one best method. Therefore, one that recently discussed alternatively is individualized instruction that seems to be appropriate in developing students reading skill, because it fits every individual skill level, needs and interests.

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STUDENTS’ INDIVIDUAL SKILL, NEED AND INTEREST

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Common classroom usually consist of students who have different skill level, need, and interest as the consequence of their different goals and purposes. The learners goal is to become a skilled reader directly in the second language, that is one who understand the meaning of a text read at normal speed and relates to his or her intentional thinking as the language is processed (Lado, 1988, p.172).

According to Byrnes (1998 ) there are many purpose of reading: (1) to gain information or verify existing knowledge, (2) to comment on a writer’s ideas or writing style, (3) to have enjoyment, and (4) to enhance knowledge of the language being read. In addition, Williams (1984 in McDonough and Saw, 1993, p.102) usefully classifies reading into: (1) getting general information from the text, (2) getting specific information from a text, and (3) for pleasure or for interest.

Moreover, Rivers and Temperley (1978 in McDonough and Saw, 1993, p.102) also list the following examples of some reasons that second language students may need or want to read: (1) to obtain information for some purpose or because we are curious about some topic, (2) to obtain instructions on how to perform some task for our work or daily life, (3) to keep in touch with friends by correspondence or to understand business letters, (4) to know when or where something will take place or what is available, (5) to know what is happening or has happened, and (6) for enjoyment or excitement.

Analyses have been done to identify and clarify fluent reading, and put it forward into a set of component skills in reading. There are at least six general component skills and knowledge areas: (1) automatic recognition skill, (2) vocabulary and structural knowledge, (3) formal discourse structure knowledge, (4) content background knowledge, (5) synthesis and evaluation skill monitoring, (6) metacognitive knowledge and monitoring (Grabe, 1991, p.379). Once a method is used, it might diversely affect the students.

Concerning the difference of students need and interest, there is various definition of what is so called need. Lawson defines need as something that is recognized but is not in any sense discovered, and its existence derives from whatever criteria are thought to be relevant in making the diagnoses (1979, p.37). In addition, Hutchinson and Waters make distinction between “target needs” and “learning needs”. The target needs refers to what the learner needs to do in the target situation and the learning need refers to what the learner needs to do in order to learn (1987, p.54).

By referring to the purpose of learning the language and individual differences or social roles of language in broader context, we may differentiate types of needs. According to Alderson (1980), there are four types of need: (1) formal needs that refer to the need to meet the institution requirements such as to pas an exam, (2) actual or obligation need that refers to what a student has to do with the language once he has learned it, (3) hypothetical future need that refers to the need to become a better professional in the future, and (4) want that refers to what student feels want to do or to learn.

Individual differences can be a considerable aspect to define learner needs in the context of learner based teaching. According to Altman (1980, p .9) learners should be placed properly based on their age, level of language proficiency, maturity and time available. Consequently, institutions are required to make flexible arrangements to enable learners to access their own learning that appropriate with their needs.

It is useful for teacher to provide students with a purpose for reading with material which stimulates their interest and which do not have over-familiar content. Of all the language skills, reading is the most private, and there is a problem ion getting feedback on private process. The notion of privacy in reading can sometimes be related to learners need; a learner may need material of a different level and topic to others learners in the group which may involve the teacher in the provision of some individualized reading program.

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INDIVIDUALIZED READING

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The effectiveness of any instructional applied may depend on the skill level of the student. Instructional strategies that help one student may be ineffective when applied to another student with different skills. Then, teacher should more specifically decide the reading skill level of each student and then find a way to create the curriculum to each student’s individual needs as Connor (2007) states that “Instead of viewing the class as an organism, we’re trying to get teachers to view the students as individuals.”

The term individual learners, which in this purpose might be identical with self-directed learners, are those who have following features: (1) know their needs and work productively with the teacher towards the achievement of their objectives, (2)learn both inside and outside classroom, (3) can take classroom-based material and can build on it, (4) know how to use resources independently, (5) learn with active thinking, (6) adjust their learning strategies when necessary to improve learning, (7) manage and divide the time in learning properly, and (8 ) do not think the teacher is a god who can give them ability to master the language ( Hedge, 2000, p.76).

Many practitioners believe that all learners can make satisfactory progresss in learning foreign language if they are given sufficient time, plus the possibility of developing their preferred learning styles and habits (McDonough and Saw, 1993, p.242). Moreover, to promote successful learning, it is necessary to determine set of goals for reading component which should include: (1) to be able to read a range of texts in English, (2) to adapt reading style according to range of purposes and apply different strategies, (3) to build a knowledge of language which will facilitate development of greater reading ability, (4) to build schematic knowledge in order to interpret text meaningfully, (5) to develop awareness of the structure of written texts in English and to be able to make use of, (6) to take critical stance to the content of texts ( Hedge, 2000, p.205).

Individualized instruction is the situation in which the teacher provides materials and activities with which students can work independently, thus releasing the teacher to minister to individual needs (Logan, 1973, p.15). He further said that in an individualized program, the whole thrust of instruction is in this direction; classroom structure is designed to allow this type of independent activity to have priority in importance and time over the synchronized activity that traditionally has dominated the classroom scene.

To make clear distinction of individualized instruction among other methods in language classroom, there are some essential characteristics of individualized instruction: (1) each student is allowed to progress through his curriculum materials at his own pace, (2) each student is tested only when he is prepared to be tested, (3) when a student need help, he works individually with teacher or with some other resource person in the classroom in a tutorial manner, and (4) each student is aware of the nature of his learning tasks and know that he must demonstrate and with what degree of accuracy he must demonstrate it to receive credit for his work and to be able to move ahead in his material (Altman, 1971, p.89).

Brumfit and Roberts (1983 in McDonough and Saw, 1993, p.243) argue that individualization involves; the organization of learning and teaching in such a way as to allow the abilities, interest and needs of the individual learner to be enhanced as effectively as possible , with the consequence that the traditional notion of the ‘average student’ and ‘aiming for the middle’ in teaching is abandoned.

As Dickinsons (1989 in McDonough and Saw, 1993, p.243) suggest even though these practical reasons are important, individualization is also important for educational reasons: (1) at its broadest, to help people to develop in to independent individuals, able to think for themselves, (2) more narrowly, to prepare people to learn. Thus, at the end of a successful educational process, the students should be capable of designing and managing his or her own learning projects.

This method applied by giving opportunity to students to learn based on their level and need by initial classification. The material should be authentic and contextual, so that students feel it is necessary to read. It also may motivate them to read more and more material in order to practice and improve their reading skill, and meet the four communicative competences in reading such as grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence and strategic competence (Duran, 1988, p.109). Successful efforts to improve reading achievement emphasize and implementation of evidence-based practices that educators can use to promote reading success among students with diverse needs and interests. Thus, individualized instruction will seem meet the need and interest of the students.

McDonough and Saw (1993, p. 245) report that it is quite common to hear teacher complain about the many reasons why they feel that they cannot individualized their classrooms. These arguments sometimes relates to the fact that they are non-native speakers; that they are under resourced in general; that the syllabus is strictly controlled; that the class size is too large; that materials are fixed; furniture is screwed to the floor thereby restricting movement of learners.

Walker (1987 in McDonough and Saw 1993, p.248 ) gives an account of how she individualized reading program by getting the students themselves to bring along self-selected reading materials and making use of a standard reading exercise that she adapted from elsewhere. In order to become part of individualized language learning program, self-aces materials should be enable the learners to: (1) decide what work they want to do, (2) find the material and work through it, (3) correct or asses answers when necessary, and (4) have work evaluated when desires.

A

CONCLUSION

a

Implementing individualized instruction will offer learners a wide choice of material and the possibility of becoming much more self-reliant and less teacher dependent. Hopefully learners will begin to understand more about their needs and how they prefer to learn. On the other hand, it has to be stressed that setting up an individualized instruction will involve a lot of time and work. However, if it is all possible, the end result is worthwhile.

REFERENCES

Alderson, J.C. (1980), A process approach to reading at the University of Mexico._Projects in materials design. ELT Documents Special, 134-163.

Altman, H.B. (1980), Foreign language teaching: focus on the learner. In H.b. Altman & C.V. James (eds.), Foreign Language Teaching: Meeting Individual Needs, pp. 1-16. New York: Pergamon Press.

Altman, H.B. (1971). Toward a Definition of Individualized Foreign Language Instruction. American Foreign language, teacher III.

Duran, R. P. (1988). Validity and language skills assessment: non-English background students. In H. Warner & H.I Braun (Eds.), test validity (p.105) Hillsdale, New Jarsey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates

Florida State University (2007, January 26). No One Strategy Is Best For Teaching Reading, Professor Shows. Science Daily. Retrieved June 7, 2008 from http://www.sciencedaily.com­ /releases/2007/01/070125173154.htm

Grabe, W. (1991). Current developments in second language reading research. TESOL Quarterly. 25 (3): 375

Harmer, J. (1998). How to Teach English: An Introduction to the Practice of English Language Teaching. Malaysia: Longman.

Harmer, J. (2002). The Practice of English Language Teaching (3^rd Ed.). Malaysia : Longman.Lado, R. (1988). Teaching English Across Cultures: An Introduction for Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages. Singapore: McGraw-Hill.

Hedge, T. (2000). Teaching and Learning in the Language Classroom. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.

Henderson, E. C., & Henderson, T. C. (1970). Learning to read and write. London: Aspen Education.

Hutchinson & Waters. (1987). English for Specific Purposes. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Lawson, K.H. (1979). Philosophical concepts and values in adult education. Milton: Open University Press.

Logan, G. E. (1973). Individualized Foreign Language Learning: An Organic Process. Newbury: Newbury House Publishers.

McDonough, J., & Shaw, C. (1993). Materials and Methods in ELT: A Techer’s Guide. Cambridge: Blackwell.

“Reading in the beginning and intermediate college foreign language class” by Heidi Byrnes, in Modules for the professional preparation of teaching assistants in foreign languages (Grace Stovall Burkart, ed.; Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics, 1998 )

Education encompasses teaching and learning specific skills, and also something less tangible but more profound: the imparting of knowledge, positive judgment and well-developed wisdom. Education has as one of its fundamental aspects the imparting of culture from generation to generation (see socialization). Education means ‘to draw out’, facilitating realization of self-potential and latent talents of an individual. It is an application of pedagogy, a body of theoretical and applied research relating to teaching and learning and draws on many disciplines such as psychology, philosophy, computer science, linguistics, neuroscience, sociology —often more profound than they realize—though family teaching may function very informally.

We want to make sure we continue to grow and prosper, and that young Indonesians are well positioned to meet the demands of an increasingly global economy and a complex world of work. Education is the key to achieving this.

Providing young people with educational opportunities, training options and life skills enables them to meet the demands of the workplaces of tomorrow. Education is for life—it is an investment that cannot be lost, spent or taken away. A good education prepares young people to build on their abilities and sets them up for lifelong learning, so that they can further enhance their opportunities.

Young people also need to have a vision of the future they want, and be equipped to make it a reality. They need to be able to understand the pathways that are open to them, identify their own strengths, and make choices that will lead to a fulfilling and challenging career and a happy and productive life.

Good career development skills and transition support services increase the chances of young people staying on at school and succeeding as they manage their move to independence and adult life.

The Indonesian Government encourages all young people to complete 9 years of schooling or its vocational equivalent, and wants to make sure that they can participate in shaping and managing their education, training and community participation.

Lifelong learning is the concept that “It’s never too soon or too late for learning”, a philosophy that has taken root in a whole host of different organisations. Lifelong learning is attitudinal; that one can and should be open to new ideas, decisions, skills or behaviours. Lifelong learning throws the axiom “You can’t teach an old dog new tricks” out the door. Lifelong learning sees citizens provided with learning opportunities at all ages and in numerous contexts: at work, at home and through leisure activities, not just through formal channels such as school and higher education.

Lifelong education is a form of pedagogy often accomplished through distance learning or e-learning, continuing education, homeschooling or correspondence courses. It also includes postgraduate programmes for those who want to improve their qualifications, bring their skills up to date or retrain for a new line of work. Internal corporate training has similar goals, with the concept of lifelong learning used by organisations to promote a more dynamic employee base, better able to react in an agile manner to a rapidly changing climate. In later life, especially in retirement, continued learning takes diverse forms, crossing traditional academic bounds and including recreational activities.

One of the reasons why lifelong education has become so important is the acceleration of scientific and technological progress. Despite the increased duration of primary, secondary and university education (14-18 years depending on the country), the knowledge and skills acquired there are usually not sufficient for a professional career spanning three or four decades.

Promoting Family Planning Program for

Welfare and Better Educated Children,

Does It Against the Religion?

Over population: a great poverty contributor

The most pressing problems facing this nation in the early 1990s were overpopulation. This problem likely will keep rising as the lack of social and economic facilities among Indonesia’s poor. Even though Indonesia’s growth rate had decreased over the decades since independence, the population continued to grow and population density increased significantly, particularly on the main islands. In June 2000, Indonesia’s population had reached 206,264,595 with an annual growth rate of 1.49 percent ⁽¹⁾.

Population growth placed enormous pressures on land, the education system, and other social resources, and was closely related to the dramatic rise in population mobility and urbanization. At such rates of growth, the population was expected to double by 2025. Even if birth control programs in place in the early 1990s succeeded beyond expectations and each Indonesian woman had only two children, Indonesia’s population was still so young that huge numbers of women would reach their child-bearing years in the first decades of the twenty first century. By the year 2010, Indonesia’s population was projected to reach at least 210 million, with the country maintaining its position as the fourth most populous nation on earth after China, Russia and the United States.

Family planning program versus religion

Most family planning programs in countries with predominantly Islamic populations have faced difficulties in promoting contraceptive use. One reason has been the orientation of clerics, many of whom view family planning as the replacement of the will of God with that of individuals in regard to reproduction.

Soon after the family planning program that preceded the National Family Planning Coordination Agency (BKKBN) was launched, both of Indonesia’s major Islamic groups expressed unease with family planning. In 1968, The Majlis Tarjih of the reformist organization Muhammadiyah declared that preventing conception was against Islamic doctrine and that contraceptive use was to be allowed only in case of emergency. In 1969, Nahdlatul Ulama stated that family planning was permissible only for spacing, not the prevention of births.

… وَلاَ تَقْتُلُواْ أَوْلاَدَكُم مِّنْ إمْلاَقٍ نَّحْنُ نَرْزُقُكُمْ وَإِيَّاهُمْ …

“…Kill not your children on a plea of want; we provide sustenance for you and for them;” (Al-Qur’an 6:151)

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“Kill not your children for fear of want: We shall provide sustenance for them as well as for you: verily the killing of them is a great sin.” (Al-Qur’an 17:31)

These verses seems conveying the same message but on scrutiny We realize that the first verse is meant for poor parents, who fear that if one more child is born in the family neither they will be able to survive nor the child, thus Allah (SWT) says we provide sustenance for you and for them. In the other verse Allah (SWT) says We shall provide sustenance for them and as well as for you, referring to rich parents who feel that if they have less children they can concentrate on them better and give them better education and quality life.

Faced with this challenge, BKKBN officials chose from the beginning not to circumvent religious opposition or push forward in spite of it, but rather to engage religious leaders and modify policy in response to their concerns. In addition, they opened up direct discussions with Muhammadiyah and Nahdlatul Ulama leaders on the subject of family planning.

This approach soon had results: In 1971, Muhammadiyah decided to allow the use of contraceptives for the purpose of spacing births; and in 1972, Nahdlatul Ulama’s women’s division created a population project.

Reliable Answer : Al-Qur’an and Hadith

A Muslim at least has these two sources of knowledge to obtain answers to the questions pertaining to various aspects of human life. These sources are:

1. The Holy Qur’an

No Qur’anic text forbids prevention of conception. There are, however, some Qur’anic verses which prohibit infanticide and these are used by some Muslims to discourage birth control.

But contraception does not amount to killing a human being. These verses in fact were revealed to forbid the pre-Islamic Arab practice of killing or burying alive a newborn child (particularly a girl) on account of the parents’ poverty or to refrain from having a female child. Perhaps in those days, people did not know safe methods of contraception and early abortion.

2. Sayings (Hadith) and acts (Sunnah) of the Holy Prophet Muhammad (SAW)

The principle of preventing conception was accepted in those sayings of the Prophet which allowed some of his followers to practice ‘azl or coitus interruptus. These ahadith embodied the earliest legal reasoning of Muslims on contraception and were essential instruments of argument in later Islamic thought on contraception. There is a sufficient number of ahadith on contraception. The most commonly quoted ones are the following.

1. According to Jabir, “We used to practise ‘azl in the Prophet’s lifetime while the Qur’an was being revealed.” There is another version of the same hadith, “We used to practise coitus interruptus during the Prophet’s lifetime. News of this reached him and he did not forbid us.”

2. According to Jabir, “A man came to the Prophet and said, ‘I have a slave girl, and we need her as a servant and around the palm groves. I have sex with her, but I am afraid of her becoming pregnant.’ The Prophet said, ‘Practice ‘azl with her if you so wish, for she will receive what has been predestined for her.’”

3. According to Abu Sa’id, “We rode out with the Prophet to raid Banu al-Mustaliq and captured some female prisoners . . . we desired women and abstinence became hard. [But] we wanted to practise ‘azl; and asked the Prophet about it. He said, ‘You do not have to hesitate, for God has predestined what is to be created until the judgment day.’”

4. According to ‘Umar Ibn Khattab, “The Prophet forbade the practice of ‘azl with a free woman except with her permission.”

5. According to Anas, “A man asked the Prophet about ‘azl and the Prophet said, ‘Even if you spill a seed from which a child was meant to be born on a rock, God will bring forth from that rock a child.’” ⁽²⁾

These hadith reflect two points: first that the Prophet knew about the practice and did not prohibit it (no. 1), and second, that the Prophet himself permitted the practice (no. 2 & 3).

Government feat Moslem Leader

The family planning partnership between the Indonesia government and the country’s nongovernmental organizations, religion institution in this case, has stressed the importance both of access to high-quality family planning services and of helping families make informed decisions on some of the most personal aspects of their lives.

The decrease in family size has translated into healthier and better educated children. In a developing country context, the single most important factor in the survival of young children is a mother’s ability to space out her births, and this is reflected in Indonesia. Infant mortality has undergone more than a fourfold decline, from 142 deaths per 1,000 birth live births in 1967 to 35 deaths per 1,000 live births in 2000 (USAID).

Government has collaborated with faith-based organizations to help improve the provision of family planning services. In a predominately Muslim country, the key to the overall success of the family planning program has been the unwavering support of Muslim religious leaders since the early days of the program.

Dr. Sudibyo Markus, Chairman of the National Executive Board of Muhammadiyah, one of Indonesia’s largest and most influential Muslim organizations with more than 30 million members said the organization encourages its members to consider birth spacing and limiting the number of children as ways to improve the lives of their families. Muhammadiyah has also provided family planning services in its extensive system of hospitals and health clinics.

“… in our religion we want all our Muslim families to live under the ‘Family Welfare Program.’ Basically, this article, or guideline, in our Ku’ran system helps us control the population of our families, so that we can reduce the economic burdens that happen when families have too many children. And I believe that family planning in Indonesia would not have succeeded without the support from religious organizations like Muhammadiyah and Nahdlatul Ulama. ^(3).

Attention to the health and well-being of Indonesian families has resulted in some significant demographic dividends. Indonesia’s total estimated population today is around 220 million people. Without its family planning program, the country’s population would likely have been nearly 280 million. This means that the world’s fourth most populous nation has 60 million fewer people today because of family planning.

National Family Planning Coordination Agency (BKKBN) chairman Sugiri Syarief said Tuesday the success of the family planning program was closely linked to the involvement of religious leaders. “Religious leaders play a central role within the community. They are people’s role models. People listen to their views and follow them,” he said in Sanur, Bali, during the International Conference of Muslim Leaders to Support Population and Development Programs to Achieve the Millennium Development Goals.

Nasarudin Umar, the director general of community guidance at the Religious Affairs Ministry, said a successful national family planning program was impossible without the backing of religious leaders. He said such support was necessary to counter “the people who use religious arguments to reject family planning and to maintain persisting views legitimizing discrimination (against women)”. ⁽⁴⁾.

Many parents acknowledge that with smaller families they can better afford to send their children to school. Girls have been the particular beneficiaries of this. Millions more girls are now attending schools because their families can afford to send them, and the gap between male and female educational attainment has considerably reduced.

Conclussion

Muslims are required the multiplication of their numbers, in order that they might be able at the time to fulfill their responsibilities in defending the mission of Islam and protecting the true religion of Allah against the power and multitudinous adversaries threatening it. But now we find that conditions have changed. We find that the density of population in the world threatens a serious reduction in the living standards of mankind to the extent that many men of thought have been prompted to seek family planning in every country so that the resources may not fall short of ensuring a decent living for its people to provide public service for them.

Islam has never been opposed to what is good to man. Indeed it has always been ahead in the effort towards the achievement of this good so long as it is not in conflict with the purposes of Allah’s law. Family planning, understood by Islam, is not opposed to marriage or to the begetting of children, nor does it’s concept imply disbelief in the doctrine of fate and Divine dispensation–for Allah Almighty has bestowed reason upon man to enable him to distinguish between the useful and the harmful, and to help him follow the path that would assure him happiness in this world as well as in the world to come.

References

⁽¹⁾ http://www.bps.go.id/sector/population/Pop_indo.htm

⁽²⁾ Khalid Farooq Akbar .Family Planning and Islam: A Review http://muslim-canada.org/family.htm

⁽³⁾ http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/global_health/pop/news/indonesia_ graduation.html

⁽⁴⁾ The Jakarta Post: Thursday, February 14^th 2007

The way people greet each other when they meet for the first time varies from culture to culture. In some cultures, people bow, and in others, they shake hands. In English speaking countries, shaking hands is the custom. How one shakes hands sends an important message about one’s character. If done properly, a handshake gives the impression of strength and honesty, and if done improperly, it conveys weakness and dishonesty. A proper handshake has four ingredients; pressure, pumps, eye contact and verbal message.

Getting the pressure in a handshake is important as the handshake itself. People often squeeze harder if they’re trying to clench a deal, show confidence over their counterpart, or give a generally warm greeting. But the crucial thing to remember in terms of pressure is not to squeeze hard in all situations; a firm handshake shows confidence and is preferable over a limp handshake, which can indicate to someone that you’re not interested in building rapport with them and want to escape the greeting ritual as soon as possible.

Another key to a good handshake is to stiffen our wrist a little and to apply pump by gripping the target’s hand firmly. The amount of pumps should depend on the target. We do not want to cause the target any pain or discomfort – that’s why we need to understand whose hand we are shaking. But a good handshake grip should apply enough pumps so that someone would have problem prying our hands apart if they tried. This is when the “shake” in the handshake happens; the shake is the last dance so make it a good one. With a stiff wrist, move the target’s hand (and arm) up and down 2 or 3 times, this should last about 3 to 4 seconds

One of our most expressive features is our eyes. A great handshake is not just about a physical gesture; it is about connecting with the other person. It is a physical greeting and we want to convey our pleasure in greeting the other person. The best way to do that is with our face and our eyes. Eye contact is allowed with anyone for a couple of seconds, but more than that is “out of the ordinary”.

It is important to deliver verbal message while shaking hand. We may begin to announce in a loud audible voice a greeting and our name and if needed any personal information we think may help them remember who we are, such as “Hello, Nice to meet you. I’m Rosma”. It is important to keep it short, because this will be directly related on “how long” we need to shake hands for.

By considering these important features of proper handshake, we can realize that the deeper key to handshakes is intention. Keep our focus on the other person, and we will naturally do those of the things on the list suggested above. We will make the handshake a natural part of our connection process.

Students must take mathematics because of its frequent use in everyday life and its fundamental important to other sciences. For instance, they use it to manage their pocket money; how much must they spend for paying bus fare, saving, and buying some meal. Travel by aero plane would not be possible without the mathematics of airflow and of control systems. Mathematics is also important to other science areas for its wide range of practical applications. Physics could do nothing without it, even Einstein perhaps couldn’t propose his well known formulation of mass-energy equivalence E = mc² if there was no mathematics. No one can deny that mathematics is important, because most daily activities involve some sort of mathematics.